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1 professor
noun* * *[prə'fesə](often abbreviated to Prof. when written)1) (a university teacher who is the head of a department: He is a professor of English at Leeds; Professor Jones.) der/die Professor(in)•- academic.ru/58203/professorial">professorial- professorship* * *pro·fes·sor[prəˈfesəʳ, AM -ɚ]n\professor of history/mathematics Professor(in) m(f) für Geschichte/Mathematik; AM (teacher at university) Dozent(in) m(f)* * *[prə'fesə(r)]n1) Professor(in) m(f); (US = lecturer of highest rank) Dozent(in) m(f)the professors — die Professorenschaft
* * *professor [prəˈfesə(r)] s1. Professor m, Professorin f:professor of history Professor für Geschichte; → adjunct B 1, assistant A 2, associate C 3, full professor2. US Hochschullehrer(in)3. Fachmann m, -frau f, Lehrmeister(in) (auch hum)4. Bekenner(in):be a professor of sich bekennen zu* * *noun* * *(UK) n.Professor m. (US) n.Dozent -en m.Hochschullehrer m. n.Professor m. -
2 Professor
noun* * *[prə'fesə](often abbreviated to Prof. when written)1) (a university teacher who is the head of a department: He is a professor of English at Leeds; Professor Jones.) der/die Professor(in)•- academic.ru/58203/professorial">professorial- professorship* * *pro·fes·sor[prəˈfesəʳ, AM -ɚ]n\professor of history/mathematics Professor(in) m(f) für Geschichte/Mathematik; AM (teacher at university) Dozent(in) m(f)* * *[prə'fesə(r)]n1) Professor(in) m(f); (US = lecturer of highest rank) Dozent(in) m(f)the professors — die Professorenschaft
* * ** * *noun* * *(UK) n.Professor m. (US) n.Dozent -en m.Hochschullehrer m. n.Professor m. -
3 professor
pro·fes·sor [prəʼfesəʳ, Am -ɚ] n -
4 professor
[prə΄fesə] n (կրճ. prof-ից) պրոֆեսոր, դասախոս. ուսուցչապետ. professor of history պատ մ ության դասախոս -
5 professor of art history
Общая лексика: профессор истории искусства (He was a professor of art history at Harvard University.)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > professor of art history
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6 professor of the history of medicine
Образование: профессор истории медицины (англ. термин взят из репортажа ABC News, США)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > professor of the history of medicine
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7 About the Authors
Douglas L. Wheeler (A.B., Dartmouth College, M.A. and Ph.D., Boston University) is professor of history emeritus, University of New Hampshire, Durham. He taught history in that institution's Department of History from 1965 to 2002, and, from 1995 to 2002, he held a chair, the Prince Henry the Navigator Professorship. He has been a research associate, African Studies Center, Boston University and an affiliate, Center for International Affairs, Harvard University. He has also been a visiting professor at Boston University; University College, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe); and Morgan State College. He was also Richard Welch Fellow in Advanced Research on the History of Intelligence at the Center for International Affairs, Harvard University (1984-85). In the 1980s, he served as general secretary of the Society for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies (SSPHS) and was one of the founders of the International Conference Group on Portugal (1972-2002). He was founding editor of the Portuguese Studies Review, a semiannual academic journal. He is the author, coauthor, or coeditor of six other books on Portugal, Angola, and espionage history, including Republican Portugal: A Political History ( 1910-1926), A Ditadura Militar Portuguesa, 1926-1933, and (with Lawrence S. Graham), In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences. Among the periodicals in which he has published articles are Foreign Affairs, USA Today Magazine, International Herald Tribune, and The Christian Science Monitor. In 1993, he was decorated by the Government of Portugal with the Order of Prince Henry the Navigator medal and in 2004, with the Order of Merit.Walter C. Opello Jr. (B.A., M.A., and Ph.D., University of Colorado, Boulder) is professor of political science, State University of New York, Oswego. Before joining the faculty at that institution, he was professor of political science, University of Mississippi, Oxford, from 1976 to 1987. Since the 1970s, he has carried out research in Portugal as a Fulbright Scholar (1981 and 1984) and as a Gulbenkian Foundation Scholar (1978 and 1980). In 1989, he was the director for research on Portugal's regions, carried out by the European Integrations and Regions Project under the auspices of the European Universities Institute, Florence, Italy. Professor Opello has published more than 50 journal articles, book chapters, books, and book reviews pertaining to Portugal's politics and government. His Portugal-related books are Portugal's Political Development: A Comparative Political Approach and Portugal: From Monarchy to Pluralist Democracy. -
8 profess
prə'fes 1. verb1) (to state or declare openly.) erklære2) (to claim or pretend: He professed to be an expert.) påstå, hevde•- professional 2. noun(( abbreviation pro prou) a person who is professional: a golf professional/pro.) yrkesutøver, profesjonellerklæreverb \/prəˈfes\/1) erklære, uttrykke, uttale, gi uttrykk for2) tilkjennegi at man har, utvise, påstå, hevde, oppgi, foregi å ha, erkjenne å ha3) late som, foregi, gi seg ut for• profess to be an authority on...gi seg ut for å være en autoritet på...4) bekjenne seg til5) utøve, praktisere, virke6) ( gammeldags eller spøkefullt) undervise (som professor)7) ( religion) avlegge ordensløfte, oppta i en ordenprofess one's faith avlegge sin trosbekjennelseprofess to be gi seg ut for å være -
9 an old doddler
божий одуванчикAlthough an expert in his field, the 70-year old professor of History was regarded by students and colleagues alike as an old doddler.
Англо-русский словарь идиом и фразовых глаголов > an old doddler
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10 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
11 Steinheil, Carl August von
[br]b. 1801 Roppoltsweiler, Alsaced. 1870 Munich, Germany[br]German physicist, founder of electromagnetic telegraphy in Austria, and photographic innovator and lens designer.[br]Steinheil studied under Gauss at Göttingen and Bessel at Königsberg before jointing his parents at Munich. There he concentrated on optics before being appointed Professor of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Munich in 1832. Immediately after the announcement of the first practicable photographic processes in 1839, he began experiments on photography in association with another professor at the University, Franz von Kobell. Steinheil is reputed to have made the first daguerreotypes in Germany; he certainly constructed several cameras of original design and suggested minor improvements to the daguerreotype process. In 1849 he was employed by the Austrian Government as Head of the Department of Telegraphy in the Ministry of Commerce. Electromagnetic telegraphy was an area in which Steinheil had worked for several years previously, and he was now appointed to supervise the installation of a working telegraphic system for the Austrian monarchy. He is considered to be the founder of electromagnetic telegraphy in Austria and went on to perform a similar role in Switzerland.Steinheil's son, Hugo Adolph, was educated in Munich and Augsburg but moved to Austria to be with his parents in 1850. Adolph completed his studies in Vienna and was appointed to the Telegraph Department, headed by his father, in 1851. Adolph returned to Munich in 1852, however, to concentrate on the study of optics. In 1855 the father and son established the optical workshop which was later to become the distinguished lens-manufacturing company C.A. Steinheil Söhne. At first the business confined itself almost entirely to astronomical optics, but in 1865 the two men took out a joint patent for a wide-angle photographic lens claimed to be free of distortion. The lens, called the "periscopic", was not in fact free from flare and not achromatic, although it enjoyed some reputation at the time. Much more important was the achromatic development of this lens that was introduced in 1866 and called the "Aplanet"; almost simultaneously a similar lens, the "Rapid Rentilinear", was introduced by Dallmeyer in England, and for many years lenses of this type were fitted as the standard objective on most photographic cameras. During 1866 the elder Steinheil relinquished his interest in lens manufacturing, and control of the business passed to Adolph, with administrative and financial affairs being looked after by another son, Edward. After Carl Steinheil's death Adolph continued to design and market a series of high-quality photographic lenses until his own death.[br]Further ReadingJ.M.Eder, 1945, History of Photography, trans. E.Epstean, New York (a general account of the Steinheils's work).Most accounts of photographic lens history will give details of the Steinheils's more important work. See, for example, Chapman Jones, 1904, Science and Practice of Photography, 4th edn, London: and Rudolf Kingslake, 1989, A History of the Photographic Lens, Boston.JWBiographical history of technology > Steinheil, Carl August von
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12 Ayrton, William Edward
[br]b. 14 September 1847 London, Englandd. 8 November 1908 London, England[br]English physicist, inventor and pioneer in technical education.[br]After graduating from University College, London, Ayrton became for a short time a pupil of Sir William Thomson in Glasgow. For five years he was employed in the Indian Telegraph Service, eventually as Superintendent, where he assisted in revolutionizing the system, devising methods of fault detection and elimination. In 1873 he was invited by the Japanese Government to assist as Professor of Physics and Telegraphy in founding the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo. There he created a teaching laboratory that served as a model for those he was later to organize in England and which were copied elsewhere. It was in Tokyo that his joint researches with Professor John Perry began, an association that continued after their return to England. In 1879 he became Professor of Technical Physics at the City and Guilds Institute in Finsbury, London, and later was appointed Professor of Physics at the Central Institution in South Kensington.The inventions of Avrton and Perrv included an electric tricycle in 1882, the first practicable portable ammeter and other electrical measuring instruments. By 1890, when the research partnership ended, they had published nearly seventy papers in their joint names, the emphasis being on a mathematical treatment of subjects including electric motor design, construction of electrical measuring instruments, thermodynamics and the economical use of electric conductors. Ayrton was then employed as a consulting engineer by government departments and acted as an expert witness in many important patent cases.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1881. President, Physical Society 1890–2. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892. Royal Society Royal Medal 1901.Bibliography28 April 1883, British patent no. 2,156 (Ayrton and Perry's ammeter and voltmeter). 1887, Practical Electricity, London (based on his early laboratory courses; 7 edns followed during his lifetime).1892, "Electrotechnics", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 21, 5–36 (for a survey of technical education).Further ReadingD.W.Jordan, 1985, "The cry for useless knowledge: education for a new Victorian technology", Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 132 (Part A): 587– 601.G.Gooday, 1991, History of Technology, 13: 73–111 (for an account of Ayrton and the teaching laboratory).GW -
13 Burks, Arthur Walter
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 13 October 1915 Duluth, Minnesota, USA[br]American engineer involved in the development of the ENIAC and Whirlwind computers.[br]After obtaining his AB degree from De Pere University, Wisconsin (1937), and his AM and PhD from the University of Michigan (1938 and 1941, respectively), Burks carried out research at the Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, during the Second World War, and at the same time taught philosophy in another department. There, with Herman Goldstine, he was involved in the construction of ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).In 1946 he took a post as Assistant Professor of Engineering at Michigan University, and subsequently became Associate Professor (1948) and Full Professor (1954). Between 1946 and 1948 he was also associated with the computer activities of John von Neumann at the Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, and was involved in the development of the Whirlwind I computer (the first stored-program computer) by Jay Forrester at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1948 until 1954 he was a consultant for the Burroughs Corporation and also contributed to the Oak Ridge computer ORACLE. He was Chairman of the Michigan University Department of Communications Science in 1967–71 and at various times was Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the universities of Illinois and Stanford. In 1975 he became Editor of the Journal of Computer and System Sciences.[br]Bibliography1946. "Super electronic computing machine", Electronics Industry 62.1947. "Electronic computing circuits of the ENIAC", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 35:756.1980, "From ENIAC to the stored program computer. Two revolutions in computing", in N.Metropolis, J.Hewlett \& G.-C.Rota (eds), A History of Computing in the 20th Century, London: Academic Press.Further ReadingJ.W.Corlada, 1987, Historical Dictionary of Data Processing (provides further details of Burk's career).KF -
14 study
ˈstʌdɪ
1. сущ.
1) а) изучение, исследование (of) to conduct, do a study ≈ проводить исследования careful study, detailed study, exhaustive study, thorough study ≈ полное исследование, исчерпывающее исследование, всестороннее исследование scientific study ≈ научный труд Syn: inquiry б) обыкн. мн. приобретение знаний to complete study ≈ завершить учебу to pursue one's study ≈ продолжать обучение в) наука, область науки г) штудии, этюды, научные занятия д) предмет (достойный) изучения е) научная работа, монография;
очерк, исследование, статья
2) а) рабочий кабинет б) глубокая задумчивость( обыкн. brown study)
3) а) иск. набросок, эскиз, этюд б) муз. упражнение, этюд
4) театр. об актере, заучивающем роль
2. гл.
1) а) изучать, исследовать Syn: consider, contemplate, ponder, weigh Ant: neglect, scan, slight б) заниматься, учиться to study under smb. ≈ учиться у кого-л. to study diligently, hard ≈ усердно учиться, прилежно заниматься to study under a well-known professor ≈ заниматься под руководством знаменитого професссора to study how to survive in the wilderness ≈ учиться выживать в условиях дикой местности в) готовиться( к экзамену и т. п.) (for)
2) а) заботиться( о чем-л.) б) стремиться( к чему-л.), стараться
3) рассматривать, обдумывать;
уст. размышлять
4) заучивать наизусть ∙ study out study up изучение, исследование;
научные занятия - the * of mathematics изучение математики - the * of foreign trade изучение внешней торговли - a direct * of interplanetary space непосредственное изучение межпланетного пространства - to be fond of * любить научные занятия, с увлечением заниматься наукой - to make a * of a literary period тщательно изучать какой-л. литературный период - my studies have convinced me that... мои исследования убедили меня в том, что... изучение, рассмотрение (вопроса и т. п.) - after the * of the matter... после изучения этого вопроса... - the proposal is under * это предложение сейчас изучается /рассматривается/ обследование - field * обследование на местах обыкн. pl приобретение знаний, учение;
занятия - * group семинар - * hall зал для занятий;
читальня, читальный зал - * carrels специальный читательский стол с перегородками (в библиотеке) - * time учебное время, часы учебы (в школе и т. п.) - to squander * time прогуливать занятия /уроки/ - to begin one's studies приступать к занятиям /к учебе/ - to continue one's studies продолжать занятия /учебу/ - he would neglect his studies when he was at school в школе он манкировал занятиями - he did not complete his college studies он не закончил курса в колледже наука;
область науки - history and allied studies история и родственные ей предметы (тк. в ед. ч.) предмет (достойный) изучения - man is their * человек - предмет их исследований - his face was a * на его лицо стоило посмотреть научная работа, монография - a new * of Shakespeare новая работа (книга) о Шекспире очерк (искусство) этюд, эскиз, набросок - a * of a head эскиз головы (музыкальное) этюд - a * by Chopin этюд Шопена забота;
старание - he made my health his * он взял на себя заботы о моем здоровье - her constant * was how to please them она всегда старалась угодить им - to make a * of smth. поставить что-л. себе целью - it will be my * to write well я поставлю себе целью /буду стараться, приложу все старания, чтобы/ правильно писать (тк. в ед. ч.) глубокая задумчивость - in a brown * в (глубоком) раздумье;
в размышлении - to be (lost) in /to fall into / a brown * погрузиться в глубокое раздумье рабочий кабинет (в квартире ученого, писателя и т. п.) (театроведение) актер, заучивающий роль - he is a quick /a good/ * он быстро запоминает роль изучать, исследовать;
рассматривать;
обдумывать - to * the situation изучить /рассмотреть, обдумать/ положение - I shall * your problem я рассмотрю /обдумаю/ ваш вопрос - he studied the map он изучал /разглядывал/ карту - to * smb.'s face внимательно следить за выражением чьего-л. лица учить, изучать что-л. - to * history изучать историю;
заниматься историей учиться, заниматься - to * hard прилежно учиться - to * under a famous professor учиться у знаменитого профессора (for) готовиться (к чему-л.) - to * for an examination готовиться к экзамену - to * for the medical profession, to * to be a doctor готовиться стать врачом - to * for the bar готовиться к карьере адвоката - he is *ing for a degree in economics он готовится к получению степени бакалавра экономических наук заботиться (о чем-л.) ;
стремиться (к чему-л.) - to * smb.'s comfort заботиться о чьих-л. удобствах - to * one's own interests преследовать собственные интересы - he studies to do the right thing он стремится поступать правильно - nobody studied to hurt him никто не хотел его обидеть - they studied nothing but revenge они стремились только к мести( разговорное) угождать, ублажать - I have a wife to * я должен считаться с женой заучивать наизусть (роль - об актерах) analog ~ исследование методом моделирования analytical ~ аналитическое исследование ~ (обыкн. pl) приобретение знаний;
to begin one's studies приступать к учебе case ~ изучение конкретного вопроса (дела) case ~ method педагогический прием для развития критического отношения учащихся к материалу и способности оценивать ситуацию cost effectiveness ~ изучение экономической эффективности cost effectiveness ~ изучение эффективности затрат distance ~ заочное образование feasibility ~ анализ технической осуществимости feasibility ~ анализ экономической целесообразности feasibility ~ изучение возможности осуществления feasibility ~ исследование осуществимости проекта functional ~ функциональное исследование group case ~ групповой анализ конкретных ситуаций group case ~ групповой разбор конкретных проблем ~ театр. тот, кто заучивает роль;
he is a good (a slow) study он быстро (медленно) заучивает роль ~ готовиться (к экзамену и т. п.;
for) ;
he is studying for the bar он готовится к карьере адвоката ~ уст. забота, старание;
her constant study was to work well она всегда старалась хорошо работать ~ предмет (достойный) изучения;
his face was a perfect study на его лицо стоило посмотреть ~ изучение, исследование (of) ;
научные занятия;
to make a study of тщательно изучать;
much given to study увлекающийся научными занятиями methods ~ изучение методов организации труда methods ~ изучение методов работы motion ~ изучение трудовых движений ~ изучение, исследование (of) ;
научные занятия;
to make a study of тщательно изучать;
much given to study увлекающийся научными занятиями nature ~ изучение природы;
наблюдение за явлениями природы personal case ~ персональное расследование pilot ~ предварительное исследование preliminary ~ предварительное изучение study глубокая задумчивость (обыкн. brown study) ~ готовиться (к экзамену и т. п.;
for) ;
he is studying for the bar он готовится к карьере адвоката ~ уст. забота, старание;
her constant study was to work well она всегда старалась хорошо работать ~ заботиться (о чем-л.) ;
стремиться (к чему-л.), стараться;
study to wrong no man старайтесь никого не обидеть ~ заниматься, учиться ~ заучивать наизусть ~ изучать, исследовать;
рассматривать;
обдумывать ~ изучать, исследовать ~ изучать ~ изучение, исследование (of) ;
научные занятия;
to make a study of тщательно изучать;
much given to study увлекающийся научными занятиями ~ изучение, исследование ~ изучение ~ исследование ~ наука;
область науки ~ наука ~ научная работа, монография ~ научная работа, монография ~ научная работа ~ научные занятия ~ область науки ~ очерк ~ предмет (достойный) изучения;
his face was a perfect study на его лицо стоило посмотреть ~ предмет изучения ~ (обыкн. pl) приобретение знаний;
to begin one's studies приступать к учебе ~ рабочий кабинет ~ уст. размышлять;
study out выяснить;
разобрать;
study up готовиться к экзамену ~ театр. тот, кто заучивает роль;
he is a good (a slow) study он быстро (медленно) заучивает роль ~ муз. этюд, упражнение ~ иск. этюд, эскиз, набросок to ~ another's comfort заботиться об удобстве других;
to study one's own interests преследовать собственные интересы to ~ another's comfort заботиться об удобстве других;
to study one's own interests преследовать собственные интересы ~ уст. размышлять;
study out выяснить;
разобрать;
study up готовиться к экзамену ~ заботиться (о чем-л.) ;
стремиться (к чему-л.), стараться;
study to wrong no man старайтесь никого не обидеть ~ уст. размышлять;
study out выяснить;
разобрать;
study up готовиться к экзамену time ~ система нормативов времени time ~ хронометраж time ~ хронометрирование -
15 chair
[ eə] 1. noun1) (a movable seat for one person, with a back to it: a table and four chairs.) stol2) (the position of a person who is chairman at a meeting etc: Who is in the chair?) mødeleder; formand3) (the office of a university professor: He holds the chair of History at this university.) professorat2. verb(to be chairman at (a meeting etc): He chaired the meeting last night.) være mødeleder; være formand- chairman
- chairperson
- chairwoman
- chairmanship* * *[ eə] 1. noun1) (a movable seat for one person, with a back to it: a table and four chairs.) stol2) (the position of a person who is chairman at a meeting etc: Who is in the chair?) mødeleder; formand3) (the office of a university professor: He holds the chair of History at this university.) professorat2. verb(to be chairman at (a meeting etc): He chaired the meeting last night.) være mødeleder; være formand- chairman
- chairperson
- chairwoman
- chairmanship -
16 in
{in}
I. 1. място, положение, при някои глаголи и за движение в, на, у
IN the street/field/sky на улицата/полето/небето
to at IN a draught седя на течение
IN Dickens у Дикенс, в съчиненията на Дикенс
to come IN the room влизам в стаята
2. време през, в, на, по време на, понякога не се превежда
IN autumn/sprine, etc. през есента/пролетта и пр., есенно/пролетно време
IN 1970 през/в 1970 г.
IN February/June, etc. през февруари/юни и пр.
IN my youth на младини
3. времетраене за, в, вътре в, след
I'll be back IN five minutes ще се върна след пет минути
4. състояние, обстоятелства, условия в, на, при, с, по, под
с ger при, като
IN bud/leaf напъпил, разлистен
IN employment/work на работа/служба
IN a cap/a necktie/spectacles с каскет/връзка/очила
IN slippers/stockings по чехли/чорапи
IN crossing the street при пресичане на/като пресичам улицата
5. обсег, сфера в, пред, според, по, или не се превежда
IN his sight пред очите му
victory is IN sight победата e близка
IN my opinion според мен, по моему
professor IN American History професор по американска история
weak/poor IN maths слаб по математика
6. степен, размер, ограничение на, в, с, по, по отношение на, откъм, понякога не се превежда
IN length/breadth, etc. на дължина/ширина и пр.
IN your size по вашата мярка
IN appearance на вид
they lost... IN killed/wounded/tanks загубиха... убити/ранени/танкове
7. пропорция от, на
one IN a hundred един на/от сто
8. принадлежност, участие, влизане в състава на нещо в, с
IN the army/navy, etc. във войската/флотата и пр.
to be IN politics занимавам се с политика
to be IN pictures работя в кинематографията
9. причина, подбуда, цел от, с, в
IN gratitude от/с благодарност
to shout IN anger викам от гняв/гневно
IN answer to в отговор на
10. преминаване в ново състояние
to break IN two счупвам (се) на две
11. начин в, с, на
IN a loud/soft voice на/с висок/тих глас
IN a reproachful, etc. tone с укорен и пр. тон
IN English/Bulgarian на английски/български
IN groups/flocks/dozens, etc. на групи/стада/дузини и пр
12. средство, материал с, от
IN pencil/chalk/ink с молив/тебешир/мастило
statue IN marble/bronze, etc. статуя от мрамор/бронз и пр., мраморна/бронзова статуя
13. в изрази
IN itself само по себе си
IN so/as far as дотолкова доколкото
IN that с това, че, тъй като, понеже, дотолкова доколкото
it is dangerous IN that it may become addictive опасно e, понеже може да се пристрасти човек
IN me в мое лице
to be IN it участвувам/имам дял в нещо
the devil's IN it това e работа на дявола
those IN it участвуващите
there is not much IN it не е/не представлява кой знае какво
there is something IN it има нещо (вярно) в това
there is nothing IN it не струва нищо, много проста работа
II. adv вътре
to come IN влизам
to put a notice IN давам обявление (във вестник)
coat with the woolly side IN кожух с космите навътре
IN with you! влизай! to fly IN пристигам (за самолет)
to be IN and out of разг. постоянен посетител/клиент съм на
he is always IN and out of the house той влиза и излиза като у дома си
to be IN on разг. зная, посветен съм в (тайна и пр.)
III. 1. вътрешен
IN patient мед. стационарен болен
the IN side крикет страната, която подава
2. идващ, пристигащ (за влак и пр.)
3. разг. моден (за заведение и пр.)
4. разг. който е на власт
5. разг. за тесен кръг
IV. 1. pl the INs политическата партия, която е на власт
2. разг. влияние (with пред)
INs and outs всички подробности/тънкости, криволичене (на път и прен)* * *{in} prep 1. място, положение, при някои глаголи и за движение в, (2) {in} adv вътре; to come in влизам; to put a notice in давам обяв{3} {in} а 1. вътрешен; in patient медд. стационарен болен; the in s{4} {in} n 1. pl the ins политическата партия, която е на власт; 2.* * *сред; у; след; с, със; през; вътре; в, във; на; навътре;* * *1. 1 в изрази 2. 1 начин в, с, на 3. 1 средство, материал с, от 4. coat with the woolly side in кожух с космите навътре 5. he is always in and out of the house той влиза и излиза като у дома си 6. i'll be back in five minutes ще се върна след пет минути 7. i. място, положение, при някои глаголи и за движение в, на, у 8. ii. adv вътре 9. iii. вътрешен 10. in 1970 през/в 1970 г 11. in a cap/a necktie/spectacles с каскет/връзка/очила 12. in a loud/soft voice на/с висок/тих глас 13. in a reproachful, etc. tone с укорен и пр. тон 14. in answer to в отговор на 15. in appearance на вид 16. in autumn/sprine, etc. през есента/пролетта и пр., есенно/пролетно време 17. in bud/leaf напъпил, разлистен 18. in crossing the street при пресичане на/като пресичам улицата 19. in dickens у Дикенс, в съчиненията на Дикенс 20. in employment/work на работа/служба 21. in english/bulgarian на английски/български 22. in february/june, etc. през февруари/юни и пр 23. in gratitude от/с благодарност 24. in groups/flocks/dozens, etc. на групи/стада/дузини и пр 25. in his sight пред очите му 26. in itself само по себе си 27. in length/breadth, etc. на дължина/ширина и пр 28. in me в мое лице 29. in my opinion според мен, по моему 30. in my youth на младини 31. in patient мед. стационарен болен 32. in pencil/chalk/ink с молив/тебешир/мастило 33. in slippers/stockings по чехли/чорапи 34. in so/as far as дотолкова доколкото 35. in that с това, че, тъй като, понеже, дотолкова доколкото 36. in the army/navy, etc. във войската/флотата и пр 37. in the street/field/sky на улицата/полето/небето 38. in with you! влизай! to fly in пристигам (за самолет) 39. in your size по вашата мярка 40. ins and outs всички подробности/тънкости, криволичене (на път и прен) 41. it is dangerous in that it may become addictive опасно e, понеже може да се пристрасти човек 42. iv. pl the ins политическата партия, която е на власт 43. one in a hundred един на/от сто 44. professor in american history професор по американска история 45. statue in marble/bronze, etc. статуя от мрамор/бронз и пр., мраморна/бронзова статуя 46. the devil's in it това e работа на дявола 47. the in side крикет страната, която подава 48. there is not much in it не е/не представлява кой знае какво 49. there is nothing in it не струва нищо, много проста работа 50. there is something in it има нещо (вярно) в това 51. they lost... in killed/wounded/tanks загубиха... убити/ранени/танкове 52. those in it участвуващите 53. to at in a draught седя на течение 54. to be in and out of разг. постоянен посетител/клиент съм на 55. to be in it участвувам/имам дял в нещо 56. to be in on разг. зная, посветен съм в (тайна и пр.) 57. to be in pictures работя в кинематографията 58. to be in politics занимавам се с политика 59. to break in two счупвам (се) на две 60. to come in the room влизам в стаята 61. to come in влизам 62. to put a notice in давам обявление (във вестник) 63. to shout in anger викам от гняв/гневно 64. victory is in sight победата e близка 65. weak/poor in maths слаб по математика 66. време през, в, на, по време на, понякога не се превежда 67. времетраене за, в, вътре в, след 68. идващ, пристигащ (за влак и пр.) 69. обсег, сфера в, пред, според, по, или не се превежда 70. преминаване в ново състояние 71. принадлежност, участие, влизане в състава на нещо в, с 72. причина, подбуда, цел от, с, в 73. пропорция от, на 74. разг. влияние (with пред) 75. разг. за тесен кръг 76. разг. който е на власт 77. разг. моден (за заведение и пр.) 78. с ger при, като 79. степен, размер, ограничение на, в, с, по, по отношение на, откъм, понякога не се превежда 80. състояние, обстоятелства, условия в, на, при, с, по, под* * *in [in] I. prep 1. за място, положение (и при глаголи за движение): в, на, у; \in bed на легло; \in the front row на първия ред; to walk out \in the rain разхождам се на дъжда; \in a draught на течение;\in the mirror в огледалото; \in Conrad у (в произведенията на) Конрад; 2. за състояние, обстоятелства, условия: в, на, при, с, по, под; \in trouble в беда; \in comfort ( disorder) в охолство (безредие); \in camera юрид. при закрити врати; \in power на власт; \in a fire ( an emergency) при пожар (непредвиден случай); \in mourning в траур; \in a cap с каскет; \in shirt sleeves по риза, без сако; in one's pyjamas по пижама; \in slavery под робство; \in white в бяло; \in mathematics по математика; 3. за причина, подбуда, цел: от, в; \in pain от болка; \in surprise учудено, с (от) изненада; \in anger от яд; \in answer to в отговор на; \in honour of в чест на; 4. за време: през, в, на; \in 1992 през 1992 г.; \in summer през лятото, лете; \in August през август; \in my sleep докато съм спал; \in my youth на младини; \in the past в миналото; 5. за времетраене: за, вътре в, след; \in a week ( a month) за (след) една седмица (месец); 6. за обсег: в, пред, според, по; \in o.'s power в моя власт; \in his sight пред очите му; \in my opinion според моето мнение, по мое мнение, според мен; \in all probability по всяка вероятност; a course \in American literature курс по американска литература; 7. за степен, размер, ограничение: на, в, с, по, по отношение на, откъм; \in width на ширина; \in itself само по себе си; \in so (as) far as дотолкова, доколкото; \in that в (по) това, че; задето; deaf \in one ear глух с едното ухо; to be lacking \in faith липсва ми вяра; 8. за начин: в, с, на; payment \in kind плащане в натура; \in a loud voice с висок глас, силно; \in French на френски; \in a few words с няколко думи, накратко; \in short накъсо; \in writing писмено; \in groups ( flocks, dozens) на групи (стада, дузини); \in twos and threes по двама и по трима; 9. за пропорция: от, на; one \in a thousand един на хиляда; once \in five months веднъж на пет месеца; 10. за принадлежност, участие, влизане в състава на нещо, занаят: в, с; \in the trade от бранша; to be \in business занимавам се с търговия; 11. за преминаване в ново състояние: на; to break \in two счупвам (се) на две; 12. за средство, материал: с, от; to write \in pencil ( ink) пиша с молив (мастило); a house \in brick къща от тухли; 13. predic to be \in it участвам, вземам участие, имам дял; those \in it участващите; there is not much \in it не е (не представлява) кой знае какво; her rivals are not \in it with her разг. съперниците ѝ не могат да се сравняват с нея, хич ги няма; I did not think he had it \in him не мислех, че е способен на това; II. adv 1. вътре; to lock s.o. \in заключвам някого; to put a notice \in давам обявление (във вестник); \in and out ту вътре, ту вън; day \in, day out ден след ден, всеки ден; he is always \in and out of the house той влиза и излиза като у дома си; 2. predic to be \in вътре (у дома, вкъщи) съм; идвам, пристигам, настъпвам; на власт съм; на мода съм; играя ( крикет); bright colours are \in ярките цветове са на мода; the train is \in влакът дойде, пристигна; spring is \in пролетта настъпи; the harvest is \in реколтата е прибрана; to be \in for сп. записан съм (за състезание); разг. предстои им; we are \in for a big thing захванали сме се с нещо голямо, плуваме в дълбоки води; to be \in for it разг. загазил съм го, закъсал съм, "вътре" съм; лошо ми се пише; to have it \in for s.o. разг. имам зъб на; to be ( keep) \in with в приятелски отношения съм с; III. adj вътрешен; the \in side страната, която играе (в крикета); IV. n pl the \ins политическа партия на власт; the \ins and outs завои, лъкатушения; извъртания, усуквания, хитрини; (пълни) подробности; to know the \ins and outs of a matter зная всички подробности (тънкости) по; to be on the \in разг. зная всичко, компетентен съм, мъдър съм. -
17 Bissell, George Henry
[br]b. 8 November 1821 Hanover, New Hampshire, USAd. 19 November 1884 New York, USA[br]American promoter of the petroleum industry.[br]Bissell first pursued a career in education, as Professor of Languages at the University of Norwich, Vermont, and then as Superintendent of Schools in New Orleans. After dabbling in journalism, he turned to law and was admitted to the Bar in New York City in 1853. The following year he was deeply impressed by the picture of a derrick on the label on a bottle of brine from Samuel M.Kier's brine well. Bissell saw in it a new possibility of producing petroleum and, with Jonathan G.Elveleth, formed the world's first oil company, the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company, on 30 December 1854. The Company obtained a sample of oil at Hibbard Farm, Titusville, Pennsylvania, and sent it for examination to Benjamin Silliman Jr, Professor of Chemistry at Yale University. He reported on 16 April 1855 that by simple means nearly all the oil could be converted into useful substances. Bissell acted on this and began drilling near Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. On 27 August 1859 his contractor struck oil at 60 ft (18 m). This date is usually taken as the starting point of the modern oil industry, even though oil had been obtained two years earlier in Europe by drilling near Hannover and at Ploesti in Romania. Bissell returned to New York in 1863 and spent the rest of his life promoting enterprises connected with the oil industry.[br]Further ReadingObituary, 1884, New York Herald, 20 November.W.B.Kaempffert, 1924, A Popular History of American Inventions, New York. I.M.Tarbell, 1904, History of the Standard Oil Company, New York.LRD -
18 Daniell, John Frederick
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 12 March 1790 London, Englandd. 13 March 1845 London, England[br]English chemist, inventor of the Daniell primary electric cell.[br]With an early bias towards science, Daniell's interest in chemistry was formed when he joined a relative's sugar-refining business. He formed a lifelong friendship with W.T.Brande, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, and together they revived the journal of the Royal Institution, to which Daniell submitted many of his early papers on chemical subjects. He made many contributions to the science of meteorology and in 1820 invented a hydrometer, which became widely used and gave precision to the measurement of atmospheric moisture. As one of the originators of the Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge, Daniell edited several of its early publications. His work on crystallization established his reputation as a chemist and in 1831 he was appointed the first Professor of Chemistry at King's College, London, where he was largely responsible for establishing its department of applied science. He was also involved in the Chemical Society of London and served as its Vice-President. At King's College he began the research into current electricity with which his name is particularly associated. His investigations into the zinc-copper cell revealed that the rapid decline in power was due to hydrogen gas being liberated at the positive electrode. Daniell's cell, invented in 1836, employed a zinc electrode in dilute sulphuric acid and a copper electrode in a solution of copper sulphate, the electrodes being separated by a porous membrane, typically an unglazed earthenware pot. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society for his invention which avoided the "polarization" of the simple cell and provided a further source of current for electrical research and for commercial applications such as electroplating. Although the high internal resistance of the Daniell cell limited the current and the potential was only 1.1 volts, the voltage was so unchanging that it was used as a reference standard until the 1870s, when J. Lattimer Clark devised an even more stable cell.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1814. Royal Society Rumford Medal 1832, Copley Medal 1837, Royal Medal 1842.Bibliography1836, "On voltaic combinations", Phil. Transactions of the Royal Society 126:107–24, 125–9 (the first report of his experiments).Listings of his scientific papers can be found in Catalogue of Scientific Papers, 1868, Vol. II, London: Royal Society.Further ReadingObituary, 1845, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 5:577–80.J.R.Partington, 1964, History of Chemistry, Vol. IV, London (describes the Daniell cell and his electrical researches).B.Bowers, 1982, History of Electric Light and Power, London.GWBiographical history of technology > Daniell, John Frederick
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19 Laithwaite, Eric Roberts
[br]b. 14 June 1921 Atherton, Lancashire, England[br]English engineer, notable contributor to the development of linear electric motors.[br]Laithwaite's education at Kirkham Grammar School and Regent Street Polytechnic, London, was followed by service in the Royal Air Force. After entering Manchester University in 1946 and graduating in 1949, he joined the university staff and became Secretary to the Inaugural Conference of the Ferranti Mark I computer. In 1964 he moved to Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, and became Professor of Heavy Electrical Engineering. From 1967 to 1976 he also held the post of External Professor of Applied Electricity at the Royal Institution. Research into the use of linear induction motors as shuttle drives in weaving looms was followed by investigations into their application to conveyors in industrial processes and as high-speed propulsion units for railway vehicles. With considerable involvement in a tracked hovercraft project in the 1960s and 1970s, he proposed the concept of transverse flux and the magnetic river high-speed linear induction machine. Linear motors and electromagnetic levitation have been applied to high-speed propulsion in the United States, France and Japan.Laithwaite has written five books and over one hundred papers on the subjects of linear motors and electromagnetic levitation. Two series of Christmas lectures were presented by him at the Royal Institution.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Society S.G.Brown Medal 1966. Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers Nikola Tesla Award 1986.Bibliography1966, Induction Machines for Special Purposes, London.1970, Propulsion Without Wheels, London (discusses properties and applications of linear induction motors).1977 (ed.), Transport Without Wheels, London (describes the design and applications of linear electric motors).1987, A History of Linear Electric Motors, London (provides a general historical survey).Further ReadingB.Bowers, 1982, A History of Electric Light and Power, London, pp. 261–4 (provides an account of early linear motors).M.Poloujadoff, 1980, The Theory of Linear Induction Motors, Oxford (for a comparison of analytical methods recommended by various investigators).GWBiographical history of technology > Laithwaite, Eric Roberts
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20 Freitas do Amaral, Diogo
(1941-)Legal scholar and teacher, jurist, civil servant, and politician. Born in Povoa de Varzim, Freitas do Amaral's father became a member of parliament in the Estado Novo's National Assembly. A superb student, the young Freitas do Amaral studied law at the Law Faculty, University of Lisbon, and became the top law student and protégé of Professor Marcello Caetano, who in 1968 was selected to replace an ailing Antônio de Oliveira Salazar as prime minister. Freitas do Amaral received his doctorate in law in the late 1960s and remained close to his former law professor, who was now prime minister. In his scholarship on the history of Portuguese law, as well as in his political and social ideology as a conservative, Freitas do Amaral in many respects remained a student, protégé, and follower of Caetano through the period of Caetano's premiership (1968-74) and into the era of the Revolution of 25 April 1974. More than 20 years later, Freitas do Amaral published his memoirs, which focused on the 1968-74 political era, O Antigo Regime E A Revolução. Memórias Políticas ( 1941-75). This personal portrait of Caetano's tribulations as a sometimes reluctant, well-prepared but probably inappropriately selected national leader remains an invaluable primary source for historical reconstruction.During the early months after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Freitas do Amaral entered politics and became a founder of the right-wing Christian Democratic Party (CDS). He served as the party's leader to 1985 and again from 1988 to 1991, and was a member of parliament, the Assembly of the Republic, from 1975 to 1983 and from 1992 to 1993. When the Democratic Alliance, of which the CDS was a part, won elections in 1979-80, Freitas do Amaral served as deputy prime minister and minister of defense and, when Francisco de Sá Carneiro died in a mysterious air crash, Freitas do Amaral briefly served as interim prime minister. He was a candidate for the presidency in the 1986 presidential election, although he lost to Mário Soares. In 1995, he served as President of the United Nations General Assembly. As a European federalist who disagreed with the CDS Euroskeptic line followed by Paulo Portas, Freitas do Amaral broke with his party and resigned from it. Although he was usually regarded as a right-winger, Freitas do Amaral backed the Social Democratic Party in the 2002 Assembly of the Republic elections. Disillusioned with the government's policies and critical of its endorsement of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March 2003, Freitas do Amaral shifted his support to the Socialist Party in the 2005 election. The new prime minister José Sôcrates named Freitas do Amaral minister of foreign affairs in the XVII Constitutional Government, but the senior jurist and politician resigned after a year in office, for health reasons.After many years as a law professor at the New University of Lisbon, in 2007, Freitas do Amaral delivered a final public lecture and retired from academia. He is the author of a biography of King Afonso I, a play, and of various legal and juridical studies and is considered the most eminent living scholar in the fields of administrative and constitutional law.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Freitas do Amaral, Diogo
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